Motivation: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.

It is a theory in  psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" in Psychological Review.
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Abraham Harold Maslow

Abraham Harold Maslow (April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist who was best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actualization. 

Maslow was a psychology  professor at  Brandeis University, Brooklyn College, New School for Social Research and Columbia University. He stressed the importance of focusing on the positive qualities in people, as opposed to treating them as a "bag of symptoms."... read more>>

"The story of the human race is the story of men and women selling themselves short." – Abraham Maslow

Maslow described human needs as ordered in a prepotent hierarchy—a pressing need would need to be mostly satisfied before someone would give their attention to the next highest need. None of his published works included a visual representation of the hierarchy. The pyramidal diagram illustrating the Maslow needs hierarchy may have been created by a psychology textbook publisher as an illustrative device. This now iconic pyramid frequently depicts the spectrum of human needs, both physical and psychological, as accompaniment to articles describing Maslow's needs theory and may give the impression that the Hierarchy of Needs is a fixed and rigid sequence of progression. Yet, starting with the first publication of his theory in 1943, Maslow described human needs as being relatively fluid—with many needs being present in a person simultaneously. The hierarchy of human needs model suggests that human needs will only be fulfilled one level at a time.

According to Maslow's theory, when a human being ascends the levels of the hierarchy having fulfilled the needs in the hierarchy, one may eventually achieve self-actualization. Late in life, Maslow came to conclude that self-actualization was not an automatic outcome of satisfying the other human needs. Human needs as identified by Maslow:

(a) At the bottom of the hierarchy are the "Basic needs or Physiological needs" of a human being: food, water, sleep and sex.

(b)The next level is "Safety Needs: Security, Order, and Stability". These two steps are important to the physical survival of the person. Once individuals have basic nutrition, shelter and safety, they attempt to accomplish more.

(c)The third level of need is "Love and Belonging", which are psychological needs; when individuals have taken care of themselves physically, they are ready to share themselves with others, such as with family and friends.

(d)The fourth level is achieved when individuals feel comfortable with what they have accomplished. This is the "Esteem" level, the need to be competent and recognized, such as through status and level of success.

(e)Then there is the "Cognitive" level, where individuals intellectually stimulate themselves and explore.

(f)After that is the "Aesthetic" level, which is the need for harmony, order and beauty.

(g)At the top of the pyramid, "Need for Self-actualization" occurs when individuals reach a state of harmony and understanding because they are engaged in achieving their full potential. Once a person has reached the self-actualization state they focus on themselves and try to build their own image. They may look at this in terms of feelings such as self-confidence or by accomplishing a set goal.

The first four levels are known as Deficit needs or D-needs. This means that if you do not have enough of one of those four needs, you will have the feeling that you need to get it. But when you do get them, then you feel content. These needs alone are not motivating.

Maslow wrote that there are certain conditions that must be fulfilled in order for the basic needs to be satisfied. For example, freedom of speech, freedom to express oneself, and freedom to seek new information are a few of the prerequisites. Any blockages of these freedoms could prevent the satisfaction of the basic needs.

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A Theory of Human Motivation Paperback

by Abraham Maslow (Author)

This is the article in which Maslow first presented his hierarchy of needs. It was first printed in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation". Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology, some of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans. Maslow described various needs and used the terms "Physiological, Safety, Belongingness and Love, Esteem, Self-Actualization and Self-Transcendence" needs to describe the pattern that human motivations generally move through. Maslow studied what he called exemplary people such as Albert Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass rather than mentally ill or neurotic people.



Motivation

What is Motivation?
Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.

Motivation commonly refers to anything that causes people to behave as they do. Most people have a clear sense of what it feels like to be motivated to do some­thing. But scientists have found it difficult to define moti­vation. When studying motivation, most psychologists and behavioural scientists focus on two specific aspects of motivated behaviour—the arousal of behaviour and the direction of behaviour.

Arousal of behaviour involves whatever brings an organism to action. Arousal means being "stirred up' or "ready for action." It may result from stimuli inside or outside the body. Inside, or internal, stimuli include the sensation of dryness that produces thirst and the stom­ach contractions that cause hunger pangs. Outside, or external, stimuli include the heat that causes pain when a person touches a hot stove.

An aroused organism's response to stimuli depends on habits and other ways of acting that it has learned. Based on such learning, the organism may act either aimlessly or highly purposefully in a particular situation.

Direction of behaviour is determined by several in­fluences. These influences include an organism's habits, skills, and basic capacities.

Motives themselves may also direct behaviour. For example, differing motives may direct the behaviour of two football coaches when their teams face much stronger opponents. One coach's behaviour may be mo­tivated by—that is, directed toward—competition or win­ning. That coach may concentrate on seeking an upset victory. However, the behaviour of the other coach may be motivated by the players feelings and may focus on keeping the players from being discouraged by the probable loss.

Physiological conditions can direct behaviour by making organisms sensitive to stimuli from the environment.  For example, many types of birds may become sensitive to available mates and also direct their behaviour to­ward nest building when the birds' hormones reach a certain level.

Kinds of motives. Most behavioural scientists place all motives into one or more of three groups. These groups are (1) homeostatic motives, (2) nonhomeostatic Motives, and (3) learned, or social, motives.

Homeostatic motives include hunger, thirst, respiration and excretion. They work to keep the body in a balanced internal state. The term homeostasis refers to the body's tendency to maintain such a balanced inter­nal state. Many homeostatic motives are set in motion either by bodily deficits or bodily excesses. When the lady needs water, for example changes occur that cause thirst and motivate the person to seek something to drink.

Nonhomeostatic motives include sex, such activity is nest building, and curiosity about the environment. These motives are aroused by occasional forces. In the absence of such forces, nonhomeostatic motives may be inactive. In contrast, the needs for food, water, and air— homeostatic motives—have almost continuous influence.

Learned motives, or social motives, include curiosity, a desire for novelty, and the need for such things as 1 achievement, power, social affiliation, and approval.

These motives seem to develop through experience, es­pecially through social experience, such as early experi­ence in the family or with friends during adolescence. Learned motive's continue to evolve and influence behaviour throughout life. However, their exact origins are not clear. Some babies have strong needs for social affiliation that may result from conditions during pregnancy and birth as well as, perhaps, other factors.

The three kinds of motives often overlap. For example, desire for new experiences may be homeostatic as well as learned. This is because people differ as to the level of novel stimulation their homeostatic mechanisms seek to maintain. As a result, some people always seem to be looking for something new while others seem too content with the familiar.

Theories of motivation. Some general theories of motivation identify a limited number of central motives, such as sex and death instincts, from which other mo­tives develop. Other theories support a single, main mo­tive in human development, such as a person's need for power or to fully realize his or her potential.

In contrast, some psychologists argue that many dif­ferent motives guide behaviour. These motives include needs for order, understanding, and independence.

Other theories of motivation try to identify the physiological mechanisms underlying a wide range of motives. For example, researchers exploring the relations be­tween behaviour and brain function have identified chemical and electrical processes in the brain that influence behaviour in people and animals.

Applications. Motivation plays an important role in informal relationships, but also in highly structured rela­tionships, such as those found in industry and education. In industry, managers use motivation techniques to ; promote cooperation between employers and employ­ees. Such cooperation enables employees to satisfy certain needs through their jobs, including security, career interests, and respect. If employees expect their jobs to help satisfy these personal needs, they will probably be '"ore motivated to ensure that the company's business objectives are achieved.

Motivation research tries to learn why people choose things they buy. It also seeks to find out what people learn from advertising. Motivation researchers explore the feelings and points of view of consumers. They use knowledge from psychology, sociology, and other social sciences to interpret these emotions and at­titudes. Motivation researchers interview people in a conversational way, and sometimes give them tests that must be analysed by psychologists and sociologists.

This type of research has shown that people do not shop with only price and quality in mind. They may buy something to impress others, or to keep up with their group. People may also buy something to imitate some­one they admire.

See also Advertising (Research).

Running

The New York City Marathon.
These runners are competing in the New York City Marathon.

Running is an effective form of exercise and a popular sport. 

Running is a vigorous form of exercise and a popular sport. Millions of people run because they enjoy the ac­tivity or want to be physically fit. Some runners compete in long-distance races that are not part of organized ath­letics meets. Most of these races are run on city streets and roads. This article includes information on such long-distance races, which are sometimes called mara­thons. For information about other kinds of running events, see Athletics.

Some people use the terms running and jogging in­terchangeably. However, running is usually considered faster than jogging. In addition, people jog only to exer­cise, not to compete against others.

Running requires no special skills or facilities. The only equipment needed is well-cushioned, flexible shoes and comfortable clothing. People more than 35 years old should have a complete medical examination before starting a running programme.

A daily programme of running improves a person's physical condition in many ways. Running is an aerobic exercise— that is, it promotes the circulation of oxygen through the bloodstream to the organs and tissues. It also builds up the heart and increases a person's endur­ance. Running strengthens the leg muscles and makes the body more limber. It helps control weight because runners burn up more than 62 calories per kilometre. In addition, running helps relieve emotional stress.

Running competitions have been held since ancient times. The Olympic Games feature several running events, including the marathon. Officially, a marathon is a race that covers 42.2 kilometres. However, the word marathon is often used for any race of several kilome­tres.

Many cities hold annual marathons. About 25,000 run­ners compete in the London Marathon, more than in any other marathon in the world. However, running events covering 10 kilometres are more popular than official marathons.

Running became extremely popular during the 1960's and 1970's. In the book Aerobics (1968), Kenneth Cooper, an American physician, brought attention to the advantages of running. Throughout the world, a large number of newspaper and magazine articles described the benefits of running and many more books about running have published. See also Cross-country, Jogging Marathon; Physical fitness. 

Sports Nutrition

Sports Nutrition

Is there one food that can guarantee good grades?

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia’s Professor Mohd. Ismail Noor, a nutritionist specialising in obesity and sports nutrition, does not think so. “A balanced diet and sufficient sleep are crucial to memory power. Students should be discouraged from last-minute mugging. Some may resort to numerous cups of coffee (coffee contains caffeine which makes one alert) but again this does not work for everyone. Others take supplements which act as an umbrella for perceived deficiency. This should not be so, unless you know for sure that you are deficient in certain nutrients,” says the Professor from the Department of Nutrition and Dietetics.

Studies show that youngsters who eat a variety of food pay attention in school, are less fidgety and learn better. If they eat well on test days, they make fewer mistakes. According to a 2003 BBC news report, demand for fish, vegetables and other ‘brain food’ rose sharply during exams. A major supermarket in Britain found that sales of tuna, cod, plaice and mackerel were up 34 per cent during exams in towns with large universities and colleges.

Fish contains the nutrients dimethlyamino-ethanol, which is thought to improve memory. Broccoli, asparagus, spinach and vitamin supplements also grew in popularity. Other popular ‘brain foods’ included avocados, bananas, sprouts, lettuce, peanut butter and melons. We live in a fast paced and increasingly complex world that requires mental sharpness and the ability to stay focused. Stress, anxiety, fatigue, high blood sugar, high blood pressure, the aging process and less than ideal nutrition play a part in the deterioration of mental functions. Eating fresh and nutritious food should be a way of life, say experts. Food that is high in fat and sugar content should be avoided. Such food gives only empty calories.

A well-balanced diet provides the building blocks for brain health and growth. Food that is especially good for the brain are fruit and vegetables which provide antioxidants to help maintain balance, co-ordination memory function. Proteins maintain

 nerve cell structure and calcium is not just important for bone structure, but is also needed for nerve impulse conduction and muscle contraction. Besides that, soy products provide choline, a nutrient that builds neurotransmitters that pass electrical impulses between brain cells. Examples of good sources of choline are egg yolk, peanuts and liver. As water makes up 85 percent of brain weight, a lack of water leads to dehydration, making it hard to concentrate, among other bad effects. Basically, the ratio of macronutrients and micronutrients needs to be adequate. If there are insufficient nutrients, this may impair a person’s cognitive 50 performance. It is most important not to skip meals. “The idea of skipping a meal and making up for it later does not work,” says Mahenderan Appukutty, sports science nutritionist at the Faculty of Sports Science and Recreation, Universiti Teknologi MARA.

Kavitha Menon, lecturer in nutrition at the School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, argues that the brain is a strange organ: Firstly, it is not as dynamic as other organs of the body. Secondly, it contains low concentrations of antioxidants which are known to protect the cells from a variety of environmental and metabolic insults. Thirdly, it is a very active organ. Hence it is vulnerable to the damaging effects of the free radicals produced during metabolism. A regular supply of nutrients is therefore needed especially during exams. Kavitha adds, “According to recent studies, those who skip breakfast are 60 more sluggish, inattentive and make lower grades. Children eating high calcium foods like dairy products showed enhanced learning.”

Sathasurya Daniel Robert, a lecturer in dietetics at USM’s School of Health Sciences, cautions that a balanced diet alone is not sufficient for brain power. “For a healthy brain, one has to get good blood flow to the organ. This can be achieved by reducing the risk factors of getting heart disease and diabetes. Besides a regular well-balanced diet with all the nutrients that the body needs, one has to have good physical and mental activity and social interactions,” he says.

The benefits of making physical activity a part of one’s daily life cannot be overstated. A regular exercise programme boosts circulation, bringing oxygen to the brain. A University of California study of nearly 6000 women, aged and above, showed that those who did the most walking every week were least likely to show signs of cognitive decline. Finally, to ensure that the brain functions optimally, it is important to challenge the mind so that it continues to grow, literally. Mental stimulation, learning new things and simply thinking young also help.

An active brain produces new dendrites, which are the connections between nerve cells that allow cells to communicate with one another. This helps the brain store and retrieve information more easily. Activities to keep one’s mind sharp and agile are reading, exploring artistic skills, playing musical instruments, learning new technology or even enrolling for night or weekend classes. Adapted from the New Sunday Times, 25 September 2005.

Personality

Personality - the combination of characteristics or qualities
that form an individual's distinctive character.

Personality is about our different ways of being human. How we are all variations
on the same themes. How the human nature we all share manifests in different
syles of  thinking, feeling and acting.

Personality is the particular combination of emotional, attitudinal, and behavioral response patterns of an individual. Personality is usually broken into components called the Big Five, which are: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (or emotionality). These components are generally stable over time and appear to be attributable to a person’s genetics rather than the effects of one’s environment.

Personality is a term that has many general meanings. Sometimes the word refers to the ability to get along well socially. For example, we speak of experiences or relationships which are said to give a person "more personally." The term also may refer to the most striking impression that an individual makes on other people. We may say "She has a shy personality."

To a psychologist, personality is an area of study that teals with complex human behaviour, including emotions, actions, and cognitive (thought) processes. Psychologists study the patterns of behaviour that make individuals different from one another.

The nature of personality

Personality types. For hundreds of years, people have tried to group the vast differences among human beings into simple units. Some of the resulting groupings divide people into personality types based on certain characteristics.

The ancient Greek doctor Hippocrates divided individuals into such types as sanguine (cheerful) and melancholic (depressed). He attributed their behavioural differences to a predominance of one of the body fluids. For example, Hippocrates believed that a person was cheerful if blood (sanguis) was the dominant influence his or her behavior.

Some of the more recent theories about personality types have tried to associates body build and temperament. Classification based on body measurements were developed by two psychiatrists, Ernst Kretschmer of Germany and William Sheldon of the United States.

The Swiss psychologist Carl Jung, who studied psy­chological characteristics, classified people as introverts or extroverts (see Extrovert; Introvert).

The simplicity of personality-type theories is appeal­ing, but it also limits their value. An individual's behav­iour is so complex, diverse, and variable that the person cannot be sorted usefully into a simple category.

Personality traits. Related to personality-type theo­ries is the search for broad traits or dispositions to de­scribe enduring differences among people. One of the early workers in this field was the British psychologist William McDougall. Personality traits are regarded as dimensions that range from high to low. For example, anxiety is a trait that varies from the greatest anxiety to the least anxiety. Most people have some degree of anx­iety along the scale between the two extremes. Psychol­ogists have studied such personal attributes as aggres­siveness, dependency, and extroversion-introversion.

Studies of personality traits help reveal the relation­ships between an individual's different personal attrib­utes. For example, a group of children may be tested for intelligence and may also be given questionnaires about their attitudes. In addition, they may be asked to rate their own characteristics, and may be rated by their teachers. The results are then correlated statistically to discover the relationships among all this information.

Ratings and self-reports. Research on personality traits tends to rely heavily on broad ratings of personal­ity. In self-ratings, a person indicates the degree to which he or she thinks he or she possesses certain per­sonality characteristics. Ratings may also be obtained from teachers, or others who know the person or who have watched the person in special situations.

These judgments may be affected by many types of bias. A person may give the responses that he or she thinks are expected and socially desirable, even if they are not true. Moreover, the answers may reflect precon­ceptions and stereotypes (fixed ways of thinking), rather than an accurate description of behaviour. Tests that ask a person to rate such attributes as friendliness or adjust­ment provide broad self-characterizations rather than detailed descriptions of behaviour. Consequently, the findings of such tests may partly reveal the concepts and stereotypes that people apply to themselves and to oth­ers. These findings may not necessarily reflect the peo­ple's actual behaviour outside the test.

Some techniques are designed to reduce the role of personal meanings and concepts. Other approaches de­liberately seek to clarify the individual's concepts about himself or herself. These personal concepts are espe­cially important in theories that stress the role of the self and one's image of oneself. For example, in his theory of self-realization, the American psychologist Carl R. Rog­ers focuses on phenomenology — a person's private experiences and perceptions.

Projective tests. Some investigators have tried to avoid the problems of relying on a person's ratings or reports about himself or herself by creating indirect clinical techniques in the form of projective tests. These methods require the person to respond to a situation in which there are no clear guidelines from test behaviour. The value of this approach for re­vealing aspects of personality is controversial and is still being studied.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory. According to the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, the personality has three parts: (1) the id, which represents instinctive im­pulses of sex and aggression; (2) the ego, which repre­sents the demands of the real world; and (3) the super­ego, or conscience, which represents standards of be­haviour incorporated into the personality during child­hood.

According to Freud, mental life is characterized by in­ternal conflicts that are largely unconscious. Impulses from the id seek immediate gratification, but they con­flict with the ego and the superego. When unacceptable impulses threaten to emerge, a person experiences anx­iety. To reduce this anxiety, the person may use various personality defences. The person may, for example, dis­place (transfer) his or her emotions to less threatening objects. A child who is afraid to express aggression to­ward his or her father may become angry at his or her pet dog instead.

Freud's ideas have had great influence on the study of personality, but they are highly controversial. Many of his ideas had to be modified severely by psychologists to take greater account of social and environmental vari­ables.

Personality and environment

Trait theories and psychoanalytic theories both as­sume that broad internal personality dispositions deter­mine behaviour in many situations. However, research on the consistency of various personality traits indicates that what people do, think, and feel may depend greatly on the specific conditions in which their behaviour oc­curs.

People may be honest in one situation and dishonest in another. They may be passive in some situations but aggressive in other situations or with different people. Many contemporary approaches to the study of person­ality therefore emphasize the role of specific social ex­periences and environmental events in the development and modification of behaviour. Psychologists are gradu­ally moving away from broad theorizing about the na­ture of personality. Instead, they are studying the condi­tions that determine complex behaviour.

Personality development. Some psychologists have examined the effects of early experiences on later per­sonality development. Other investigators have studied the stability of particular patterns of personality over long periods of time. Their findings suggest that such tendencies as striving to achieve may persist to some degree from childhood into adulthood. However, re­search has also shown that personality continues to change as a result of new experiences and modifications in the environment.

Throughout their development, people learn about themselves and their world by observing other people and events. They also learn by trying new kinds of behaviour directly. The rewards and punishments they receive after trying various patterns of behaviour affect their future behaviour in similar situations. People also learn by observing the results of the behaviour of such social models as their parents. Suppose children repeatedly see adults succeed in antisocial or criminal acts they see such behaviour rewarded, they are more likely to copy it than if it is punished. Children more readily imitate models who are powerful or who reward or take care of them.

As children develop, they copy some of the behaviour of many models, including their friends as well as their parents. They combine aspects of their behaviour into new patterns. Through direct and observational learning and cognitive growth, they also acquire standards and values that help them regulate and evaluate their own behaviour. Gradually, people develop an enormous set of potential behaviours. The particular behaviour patterns they show in specific situations depend on motivational factors. See Motivation.

People's cognitive and social learning experiences vary as a result of the particular social and cultural con­ditions to which they are exposed in the home, at school, and in other environments. Personality traits may predict many important aspects of behaviour. But the setting in which behaviour occurs often provides the best predictions about what people will do. Thus, al­though extensive differences among people are found in most human actions, considerable uniformity and regularity can occur when environmental conditions are very powerful. Strong success experiences in a new sit­uation, for example, may override the effects of past fail­ure experiences and of personality traits in determining future reactions to that new situation. Similarly, pro­longed or intense environmental changes, such as lengthy hospitalization or imprisonment, may lead to major personality changes. A person who has severe difficulties in personal relationships is said to be suffer­ing from a personality disorder. See Mental illness.

Emotional reactions. During the course of develop­ment, we acquire intense emotional reactions to many stimuli. Events that once were neutral may become either pleasurable or painful as the result of condition­ing (see Learning (Flow we learn]).

Some reactions may involve strong anxiety and can have crippling effects. For example, children who have frightening experiences with dogs may become afraid of all dogs. This fear may generalize (spread) even more widely to other animals and to such objects as fur coats, or hair. Such fears are especially hard to unlearn be­cause these people tend to avoid all contact with situa­tions that provoke fear. Consequently, these people pre­vent themselves from having experiences that might eliminate their fear—petting harmless dogs, for example Emotional upsets of this kind may also be acquired by observing the fear reactions of other people.

As a result of social learning, we generalize from our experiences to new but similar or related situations. But we do not generalize indiscriminately. A young boy may learn to express physical aggression in many settings, including school, play, and home. But he also learns not to be aggressive in other situations, such as when visit­ing his grandparents.

Personality change. Research on cognitive and social learning processes is leading to new forms of psychotherapy to help people who have psychological problems. Some of these problems are the result of learning deficits. For example, some people lack fundamental academic and vocational skills, such as reading proficiency. Individuals who have inadequate relations with others need to learn essential interpersonal skills. Some people have these basic skills, but they suffer because of emotional fears and inhibitions.

Psychotherapy aimed at changing personality tends to s insight into the history through which the problems developed. Learning methods try to change the disturbing behaviour itself by carefully planned relearning and conditioning techniques. Still other forms of personality change may be achieved by creating special environments for learning more adaptive personality patterns. Related articles include Abnormal, psychology, Psychology, Alienation, Social psychology, behavior, Social role, Sigmund Freud, Perception and Testing.

Costmetics

Cosmetics are substances applied to a person's body to cleanse, promote attractiveness, or alter the appearance. Cosmetics include underarm deodorants, face powder, lipstick, nail polish, perfume, skin creams, most  shampoos, and some toothpastes.

More than 5,000 ingredients are used in the manufacturing of cosmetics. These ingredients include alcohols, alkalis, detergents, dyes, glycerol, oils, talc, and waxes.

A person who manufactures or sells cosmetics, or who applies them to others, is called a cosmetician. The study of cosmetics and their uses is called cosmetology.

Kinds of cosmetics. Most cosmetics can be classified into four main groups, according to the part of the body for which they are used:

(1) skin,

(2) hair,

(3) nails, and

(4) mouth.

Skin cosmetics include such makeup as blushers, rouge, face powder, foundations, and lipstick. Also in this group are eyeliners, eye shadow, and mascara, as well as bubble baths, cold cream, underarm deodorants, foot powder, hair-removal substances, perfume, shaving cream, moisturizers, and suntan lotion.

Hair cosmetics include hair conditioners, mousses, sprays, styling lotions, straighteners, and permanent waves. Such hair-colouring products as dyes and bleaches are also hair cosmetics, as are shampoos that do not contain antidandruff ingredients.

Nail cosmetics. Nail polish and cuticle softeners are the chief products in this group.

Mouth cosmetics, also called oral cosmetics, include toothpastes and other substances that clean the teeth and gums but do not have cavity-fighting ingredients. Mouthwashes and sprays are also oral cosmetics.

Other cosmetics. Performers in motion pictures, tele­vision, theatre, and circuses wear special cosmetics that must withstand the heat from powerful lights without melting or running. They also must be visible to the au­dience. Many people use special medicinal cosmetics to conceal birthmarks, scars, or other skin blemishes.

Cosmetics regulations. Many governments require that cosmetics be safe and properly labeled. They test products to determine if unsafe ingredients are present, and they inspect cosmetics factories. Some regulations require cosmetics manufacturers to list on each package the names of the ingredients used in the product, in order of descending concentration.

History. Men and women have used cosmetics for thousands of years. The ancient Egyptians applied per­fumes and anointing oils to the body as early as 4000 B.C. They used these cosmetics for decoration, for pro­tection against the hot, dry climate, and for religious reasons. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans made cos­metics from plants. They also used powdered minerals to make face and eye makeup and hair dyes.

By the A.D. 1100s, the use of cosmetics had spread to Western Europe. Africans of about the same period painted their bodies for war and for magical ceremo­nies. In North America, the first cosmetics were animal fats used by Indians long before Europeans arrived. The Indians applied these substances as a base for body paint and as protection against insects and the cold.

By the early 1900's, most people used only such basic cosmetics as face powder, rouge, and shampoos. De­mand for a wider variety of cosmetics grew tremen­dously after the 1930s, as did widespread advertising and promotion of these products.