Child

Child

Child is a young human being below the age of puberty 

or below the legal age of majority.

Children of different ages vary widely in their social development. A toddler may be content to play alone, top left. By the early school years, many youngsters prefer to play in a group. Being part of "the gang" is extremely important to most preteenagers.

Developing language skills is a major challenge for children during the toddler stage. Many parents use stories and pictures to help toddlers increase their vocabulary and build sentences.

Playing make-believe can help children learn adult roles. These youngsters may be pretending that they are parents pre­paring to take their children for a ride in the family car.

Learning to concentrate is one of the major achievements of children during the early school years. Typical 9-year olds, take great pride in doing their work ac­curately.

Children worked carrying clay used to make bricks in England during the Industrial Revolution of the early 1800's.

Many children in care live in children's homes run by local authorities or voluntary organizations.

Children in care often mix with children from families on spe­cial occasions such as a mass for handicapped children.

Child is a person between about 18 months and 13 years of age. Childhood is one of the major stages in a person's development At 18 months of age, children have just begun to outgrow baby clothes, though many must still wear nappies. By the age of 13, most boys and girls have nearly doubled in height and quadrupled in weight. They have also begun to develop sexually. They are thus starting to look more and more like young adults. But growing up involves far more than physical growth and development. It also involves significant changes in a child's behaviour, thought processes, emo­tions, and attitudes. These psychological changes largely determine the kind of adult that a child will be­come.

Strictly speaking, a child is anyone who is not yet an adult According to this definition, childhood extends from birth until sometime past the age of 20—the age at which most people reach their full adult physical growth. However, childhood is usually considered to be a much shorter period. In most industrialized countries, it is regarded as one of three stages that people pass through from birth to adulthood. The other stages are infancy and adolescence. Infancy extends from birth to about 18 months of age. Adolescence begins at about age 13 and lasts to adulthood. Childhood is the period between infancy and adolescence. In some developing countries, people are considered to be adults after they reach the age of 12 or 13, and adolescence is not re­garded as a distinct stage of development.

Parents play a vital role in their children's develop­ment. One of the chief concerns of parents is to help their children develop normally. The word normal has two meanings as applied to child development. One meaning concerns the absence of physical and mental disorders that are considered abnormal in most socie­ties. These disorders include epilepsy, schizophrenia, and spastic paralysis. Relatively few children are born with or develop such physical and mental disorders, and so the vast majority of children are normal accord­ing to this definition.

The second meaning of normal concerns the degree to which a child possesses certain skills or traits that the child's particular society values. Children are regarded as normal in this sense of the word if they compare fa­vourably with the majority of children in developing a valued trait or skill. In every society, normal develop­ment includes learning to communicate, to get along with other people, and to act intelligently and responsi­bly. These skills and traits are essential to group living, and so all parents are expected to help their children develop them.

Other skills and traits are valued only by particular so­cieties. In industrialized countries, for example, children are expected to learn how to read and write. A child who fails to acquire these skills may be considered ab­normal. In developing countries, on the other hand, many children never attend school. Instead, they may be assigned farm or household chores. These children are regarded as normal if they acquire the necessary farm or household skills. They are not considered abnormal if they cannot read and write. In some societies, particu­larly those in the West, such personality traits as compe­titiveness and independence are encouraged. In other societies, these traits are considered abnormal and so are discouraged.

The role of parents thus varies according to the skills and personality traits that children are expected to de­velop. The role of parents also varies according to the needs of children at different stages of their develop­ment and according to the different needs of individual children.

This article discusses the stages of childhood, individ­ual differences among children, and special problems of childhood. It also describes how parents can best pro­mote their children's development. For similar informa­tion about infancy and adolescence, see the articles Ad­olescent and Baby.

The stages of childhood

A child's psychological growth depends on the child's environment. Environment consists of everything with which a child comes in regular or frequent contact, in­cluding other people. The majority of children receive the environmental help they need for normal psycholog­ical development.

However, psychological growth is also affected by physical factors. For example, advances in learning abil­ity are influenced by the development of the nervous system. Children do not develop physically at the same rate. As a result, their readiness for psychological growth also varies. A child who develops at a somewhat slower rate than average is not necessarily abnormal.

Childhood can be divided into four stages based on periods of major psychological change. These stages are (1) the toddler stage, (2) the preschool years, (31 the early school years, and (4) the preteenage years.

The toddler stage lasts from about 18 months to 3 years of age. A child's physical growth is generally slower during this second 18 months after birth than it was during the first 18 months.

By 18 months of age, most children can feed them­selves, walk and run a short distance, stack some build­ing blocks, and say a few meaningful words. A toddler is expected to improve on all these skills. But the develop­ment of language skills—especially the building of sentences—is a major challenge. Most 2-year-olds use one or two words for an entire thought. Parents cannot always be sure what the words mean. For example, a child who says "milk" or "milk gone" may mean anything from "I want some milk" to "I just spilled my milk." By 3 years of age, however, most children can link several words together to form a fairly complete sentence. They can speak about 900 words—an enormous increase over the average 10- to 20-word vocabulary they have at 18 months of age.

Toddlers also vastly improve their powers of imitation and imagination. Some kinds of imitation are fun and at­tract attention, such as imitating the sounds that animals make. Most toddlers have an active imagination and love to pretend. They may pretend that a cup of water is a cup of tea or that a tricycle is a car or an aeroplane.

A toddler's social relationships develop slowly. Until children are about 2 years old, they tend to be shy with other youngsters. Children usually overcome this shy­ness after a few minutes, though they may still consider another child more as an object than as a person. By 3 years of age, children start to realize that they have things in common with other children. They then begin to regard them as equals.

Toddlers form their strongest attachments to their parents or substitute parents. Above all, toddlers want to feel assured that they have their parents' acceptance and approval. As a result, they are sensitive to any sign of rejection or disapproval.

The preschool years extend from about 3 to 5 years of age. This period helps prepare children for the de­gree of independence and responsibility they will be given during the next stage of childhood. Preschoolers are highly active and constantly exploring the world around them. At the same time, they are beginning to learn that there are certain standards of behaviour things they should and should not do.

By about 3 or 4 years of age, the majority of children have become increasingly aware of themselves and of other people. They are not only more conscious of their own actions, but they have also begun to realize that other people have feelings like their own. At this stage^ of development, children then start to govern some of their actions according to the pleasure or displeasure K that they give another person.

One of the first standards that all children are expected to learn is control of the bowels and bladder—a process called toilet training. However, the age when such control becomes possible varies greatly among children. In addition, the age when a child is expected develop the control varies greatly among societies. Most children, however, have started to develop it by their third year.

Other standards of behaviour besides toilet training are also taught to children in every society. These stand­ards include obedience, truthfulness, respect for prop­erty, and various sex role standards—that is, the roles that people are expected to play as males or females. As in the case of toilet training, the age when children are expected to learn each standard varies among societies. Most children, however, are capable of such learning by about 3 or 4 years of age.

Most parents use rewards and punishments to teach their children standards of behaviour. They reward chil­dren for desired actions and punish them for undesired ones. A word of praise or a hug is usually a sufficient re­ward. Punishment usually consists of a strong "no" or a light slap. Gradually, a child learns that some actions are good and some are bad. In most cases, however, it is the parents who must decide the goodness or badness of an action.

Preschoolers also learn standards of behaviour through a more or less unconscious process called identification. The process often begins during the tod­dler stage, but it becomes fully developed during the preschool years. Children identify with another person if they feel that they have the same physical and psycho­logical characteristics as that person. Most children identify with one or more members of their family, es­pecially their parents.

The majority of 3- and 4-year-olds do not know they have a choice in their actions. If something they do dis­pleases their parents, they feel anxious, ashamed, or

sorry. But they do not blame themselves for the action. By about 5 years of age, however, most children start to realize that they can choose one action rather than an­other. Children then begin to feel guilt, as well as shame, if they behave wrongly.

The early school years, which last from about age 5 to 8, mark a major turning point in a child's psychologi­cal development. Children continue to improve their physical skills during this stage. But the period is distin­guished mainly by important advances in a child's men­tal, emotional, and social development.

In most societies, children have been taught basic standards of social behaviour by the time they reach their fifth year. They are also learning to judge whether particular actions are right or wrong. A child can thus be given more independence. However, adults channel this independence along definite lines. In most industrial­ized countries, children must start school at about 5 or 6 years of age.

Every schoolchild is expected to learn to solve prob­lems, a skill that improves with practice. A 5-year-old may try to solve a problem by choosing the first solution that comes to mind. But a 6- or 7-year-old thinks about other possible solutions and recognizes why one is bet­ter than another. Children this age also begin to see how things are alike and how they differ. Finally, chil­dren gain confidence in their mental powers and start to enjoy solving problems correctly.

By the age of 7 or 8, most children begin to rational­ize their beliefs—that is, to find reasons for holding them. They may thus decide that the standards of behav­iour they have learned are good standards to hold. Chil­dren this age also increasingly compare themselves with other youngsters. Such comparisons contribute to a child's self-image— that is, the opinion one has of one­self. The self-image formed during childhood can influ­ence a person's behaviour throughout life.

Children begin to form a self-image during the pre­school years as they identify with their parents or other family members. A child's self-image is favourable or un­favourable, depending on the attitudes and emotions of the persons with whom the child identifies. For exam­ple, children who see mainly negative qualities in their parents will likely view themselves in a negative light. Children form a more favourable self-image if they have a better impression of their parents. When children compare themselves with other children, they reinforce or alter their basic self-image.

The preteenage years extend from about age 8 to 13. This stage is also known as preadolescence. During preadolescence, the rate of physical growth, which had been declining since infancy, increases sharply. The pre­teenager begins to grow heavier and taller and to de­velop the sexual characteristics of an adult. Most girls, for example, have their first menstrual period by age 12 or 13. Most boys develop hair on their body and face, and their voice deepens. The entire stage during which a person matures sexually is called puberty. Some chil­dren reach sexual maturity before age 13. But the major­ity do not become sexually mature until the early teen­age years.

During the preteenage years, a child's circle of friends and acquaintances, or peer group, plays an in­creasingly important role in the child's development.

Preteens begin to look chiefly to their peer group, rather than to their parents, for acceptance and ap­proval. They judge themselves according to peer group standards, and so their self-image continues to develop. A child's behaviour may also change noticeably under peer group pressure.

During late preadolescence, children may begin to worry if a new standard of behaviour conflicts with an earlier one. They often relieve such anxieties by talking them over with their friends. Nevertheless, older pre­adolescents feel a growing need to keep their beliefs consistent. They may therefore revise or reject a con­flicting standard. Children this age also begin to reason that a "wrong" action may be permitted under some cir cumstances.

Individual differences among children

Two main forces—heredity and environment—ac­count for the individual differences among children. He­redity is the process by which children inherit physical and mental traits from their parents. Environment con­sists of all the things in a child's surroundings that affect the child's development of the inherited traits.

Individual differences among children are caused by heredity and environment acting together, not sepa­rately. In general, heredity limits what the environment can do in influencing a child's development. For exam­ple, every child inherits a tendency to grow to a certain height. Not even the best environmental conditions will enable a chiid to grow much taller than this height. But children need the right conditions, including proper nourishment and exercise, to grow as tall as their hered­ity allows. Heredity and environment together thus de­termine the physical differences among children. The two forces together also account for individual differ­ences in intelligence.

Physical differences. Children differ greatly in their physical appearance and rate of growth. For example, the normal weight for 9-year-old boys in Western coun­tries ranges from 25 to 37 kilograms. Their normal height may be 130 to 140 centimetres. The normal ranges for 9-year-old girls are slightly lower. But most girls grow rapidly from about 9 to 12 years of age. Girls are normally heavier and talier than boys during these

Years. At about age 12, however, most boys start to grow rapidly, and the girls' growth rate declines. By age 14 most boys are again heavier and taller than most girls their age. Some children begin this rapid growth a year or two earlier or later than the majority. Children are not necessarily abnormal if their height and weight vary somewhat from the normal ranges for their age.

Differences in intelligence among children are usually measured by IQ (intelligence quotient) tests. These tests are designed to indicate a child's general mental ability in relation to other children of the same age. Each child's performance on the tests is rated by an IQ score. On most such tests, about two-thirds of all children score from 84 to 116. About a sixth score below 84, and a sixth score above 116.

The IQ scores of persons related by blood general differ less than the scores of unrelated persons. Some experts therefore conclude that general mental ability is largely inherited and is only slightly affected by environment. Other experts, however, believe that environment has a strong influence on a person's intelligence. Their view is supported by studies of culturally deprived children. Children are considered culturally deprived if their home life lacks the kinds of experiences that will help them profit from formal schooling. Many such children have an IQ score below 80. But in a number of cases, culturally deprived children greatly improved their score after receiving special training and encouragement in foster homes or in school.

Some experts question the usefulness of IQ tests on the grounds that they do not measure basic mental skills. These experts point out that intelligence involves a variety of separate powers, such as memory, logic, evaluation, and originality. A child may have little ability in some of these areas but exceptional talent in one or  more other areas. The critics therefore believe that children should be tested and evaluated for each mental skill separately. For more information on intelligence and IQ tests, see the articles Intelligence and Intelligence quotient.

Special problems of childhood

Some children develop patterns of behaviour that are a problem to themselves and to the people around them. Under certain conditions, such behaviour may be a symptom of a deeper psychological or physical disor­der. A child who is psychologically disturbed may bene­fit from professional counselling.

A child's behaviour is a symptom of a psychological disorder if it (f) differs widely from normal behaviour, (2) has undesirable consequences or side effects, and (3) distresses the child. All three conditions must be pres­ent before behaviour becomes a symptom. For example, a child who shows exceptional ability in school differs greatly from most other schoolchildren. But the child's behaviour is not considered a symptom because it does not usually have undesirable consequences or cause psychological distress.

A number of childhood problems may be symptoms of deeper physical or psychological disorders. Two of the most common such problems are (1) unrealistic fears and (2) aggressive and antisocial behaviour.

Unrealistic fears. All children are afraid on occasion. Fear is thus a normal emotion. Fears are unrealistic if they occur regularly in the absence of real danger. In some cases, such fears may be directly related to a frightening past experience. For example, a child who has a fear of all animals may have developed the fear after being attacked by an animal. In other cases, unreal­istic fears may be only indirectly related to a past event. For instance, a child who feels extreme guilt over an ac­tion may expect severe punishment. The child may then develop an abnormal fear of death, accidents, or illness.

Aggressive and antisocial behaviour. Psycholo­gists define aggression as angry, hostile behaviour that is intended to hurt or upset others. Such behaviour in young children can result from frustration. Children may feel frustrated if their demands are not met or if their feelings of worthiness and self-respect are threatened. If a child's anger becomes intense, it may erupt into a tantrum—a common form of aggression in young chil­dren.

Children can learn to control aggression if they are taught at an early age that some of their demands will not be met. A child who develops such a frustration tol­erance is less likely to have severe or frequent tantrums. But children may have great difficulty developing the necessary tolerance if their parents are too strict or too permissive. If parents are too strict, a child may feel in­creasingly frustrated in trying to meet their high goals. If they are too permissive, the child may react aggressively to any frustration. In addition, parents encourage ag­gression if they are frequently angry and hostile them­selves.

Most children learn to control aggression by the pre­teenage years. They may do so partly by channelling their energies into hobbies, sports, schooiwork, and other activities. Some children, however, do not learn to deal with aggression effectively. Instead, they may re­lieve feelings of frustration and hostility by antisocial be­haviour, such as bullying other children, stealing, or de­stroying property. Such behaviour worsens if the peer group encourages it.

Other special problems may also be symptoms of psychological or physical disorders. These problems in­clude (1) hyperactivity (extreme restlessness); (2) poor performance in school; (3) extreme shyness; and (4) bed­wetting.

Hyperactivity. Most hyperactive children cannot con­centrate on anything for more than a few minutes at a time. Scientists do not know the exact cause of the dis­turbance. There is evidence that some cases may be caused by an allergy to certain chemical additives in food, especially particular food colourings and dyes.

Poor performance in school is frequently caused by a child's failure to learn to read. Failure in reading may be due to a physical or psychological problem, such as poor eyesight, poor hearing, or extreme shyness. The reading ability of most hyperactive or mentally retarded children is severely limited (see Mental retardation). In many cases, however, reading problems can be avoided if parents prepare their children for learning to read. Parents should thus make a practice of reading stories and poems to their children during the toddler and pre­school years. Parents should also acquaint their children with books and other reading materials and help them build a vocabulary. Schoolchildren who lack such prep­aration may fall behind their classmates in learning to read. Children also need a motive for learning to read. Parents help provide such a motive if they show that they value learning.

Extreme shyness. In some cases, children become overly shy if they are dominated by older brothers and sisters. Shyness may also begin as an inherited tend­ency. Flowever, the precise causes of extreme shyness are not well understood.

Bed-wetting. A habit of bed-wetting after about 5 years of age is a physical or psychological symptom. Parents should not punish or threaten a child who has the problem. In every case, a doctor or psychologist should be consulted.

The role of parents

Mothers and fathers can best promote the develop­ment of their children in three major ways. They can do so by (1) understanding a child's basic needs, (2) motivat­ing the child's behaviour, and (3) serving as models of appropriate behaviour.

Understanding a child's basic needs. All children have certain basic physical and psychological needs. Both sets of needs must be met if a child is to develop normally. Poor physical health may harm a child's psy­chological development, and psychological problems may affect a child physically.

Basic physical needs. Children need regular, nourish­ing meals, proper clothing, and a clean, comfortable home. They also require a reasonable amount of play and exercise and enough space to play in. Also, children who learn good health habits and standard safety prac­tices reduce the risk of diseases and accidents.

Improved health care has greatly increased the life ex­pectancy of children in many countries during the 1900's. For example, such diseases as diphtheria and whooping cough formerly killed thousands of children every year. But the development of immunization pro­grammes has sharply reduced the death rate from these diseases.

Most children receive their first immunizations before 18 months of age. A child should be reimmu­nized for diphtheria, polio, tetanus, and whooping cough at about 4 to 6 years of age. For detailed informa­tion on the physical needs of children, see Health; Nutri­tion; and Safety.

Basic psychological needs age determined by the skills and personality traits that a child is expected to de­velop. Some skills and traits are encouraged in every so­ciety. All children therefore have certain basic psycho­logical needs. Toddlers, for example, need to develop self-confidence, and so they must feel loved, wanted, and respected. Toddlers should also have enough vari­ety in their routine to help them develop language skills. Preschoolers especially need close contact with adults they like and admire. Such contacts help promote nor­mal emotional development.

Children are expected to behave more responsibly after they reach school age. They must therefore be con­vinced that required standards of behaviour do not change from day to day. Preteens have a strong need to feel as successful as other children their age. Success often means measuring up to the sex role valued by so­ciety. The preteen thus requires freedom to develop the appropriate masculine or feminine qualities.

Motivating the child's behaviour. Parents motivate a child when they encourage the child to adopt a certain type of behaviour. Rewarding good behaviour is one means of motivation. Persistent misbehaviour should be punished. But punishments should be just. Children will understandably be upset if they are punished for behav­iour that they continually see in their parents. Parents should try to motivate children without making them think they are being manipulated. Instead, children should be made to feel that they were personally re­sponsible for improvements in their behaviour.

Rewards and punishments work in cases that are not complicated by other factors. Children whose parents regularly encourage schoolwork are more likely to suc­ceed in school than are children who lack such encouragement. A child who is taught to control aggression is less likely to become a bully than is a child who is not taught such control. Motivation is not always effective, however, because other factors also influence a child’s behaviour. For example, children cannot be motivated to learn to read if they believe they lack the ability. Parents may also be unable to motivate a child who feels resent­ful or hostile toward them.

Serving as models of appropriate behaviour. Children model themselves largely on their parents. They do so mainly through identification. Children iden­tify with a parent when they believe they have the quali­ties and feelings that are characteristic of that parent The things parents do and say—and the way they do and say them—therefore strongly influence a child's behav­iour. However, parents must consistently behave like the type of person they want their child to become.

A parent's actions also affect the self-image that chil­dren form through identification. Children who see mainly positive qualities in their parents will probably learn to see themselves in a positive way. Children who observe chiefly negative qualities in their parents will have difficulty seeing positive qualities in themselves. Children may modify their self-image, however, as they become increasingly influenced by peer group stand­ards during the preteenage years.

Isolated events, even dramatic ones, do not necessar­ily have a permanent effect on a child's behaviour. Chil­dren interpret such events according to their estab­lished attitudes and previous training. For example, chil­dren who know they are loved can accept the divorce of their parents or a parent's early death. But if children feel unloved, they may interpret such events as a sign of rejection or punishment.

In the same way, not all children are influenced alike by toys and games, reading matter, and television pro­grammes. As in the case of a dramatic change in family relations, the effect of an activity or experience depends on how the child interprets it. Each child's interpretation, in turn, depends on the child's standards of behaviour. For instance, violent behaviour on television may heighten the aggressive tendencies of a child who con­siders such behaviour permissible. Children are less likely to be influenced by TV violence if they have learned that violent behaviour is wrong (see Television [Effects on learning]). In the end, the day-to-day behav­iour of parents themselves has a more powerful influ­ence on their children than isolated events and experi­ences.

Outline

The stages of childhood

The toddler stage

The preschool years C The early school years D. The preteenage years

Individual differences among children

Physical differences

Differences in intelligence

Special problems of childhood

Unrealistic fears

Aggressive and antisocial behaviour C Other special problems

The role of parents

Understanding a child's basic needs

Motivating the child's behaviour

C Serving as models of appropriate behaviour

Questions

Why can most children be given more independence by about 5 years of age?

In what ways do all children differ? What two main forces ac­count for these differences?

What are the two meanings of the word normal as applied to child development?

Child abuse is a term that generally refers to mistreat­ment of a child by a parent or another adult. There is no standard definition of child abuse, however. A narrow definition is limited to life-threatening physical violence, including severe beatings, burns, and strangulation. A broader definition includes any treatment other than the most favourable care, and includes neglect, sexual or emotional abuse, and exploitation.

No one knows how many instances of child abuse occur every year because many cases are never re­ported. In England and Wales, the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) estimates that about 10 thousand children are physically injured each year, and a similar number are sexually abused. In the United States, the National Center for Child Abuse and Neglect estimates that nearly one million children suffer nonaccidental, life-threatening physical violence each year. Child abuse is thoughtrto occur in many de­veloping and industrialized countries.

Views about the causes of child abuse have changed through the years. Many social scientists once believed that only people with severe emotional problems would abuse children. However, studies indicate that most in­dividuals who abuse children do not suffer from tradi­tional psychiatric illnesses. Another common view is that abused children grow up to be abusive adults, a de­velopment referred to as the cycle of abuse. But re­search has shown that abused children do not necessar­ily become abusers as adults.

Today, many experts believe child abuse is wide­spread because society regards physical punishment by parents as a reasonable way of changing children's be­haviour. Thus, adults who hurt children sometimes only intend to correct them and do not realize how easily children can be injured. Another cause of child abuse is stress. Parents who are unemployed, very isolated, or under great stress for other reasons are more likely to abuse their children than parents who do not have such problems. Children who are difficult to care for, such as premature infants and handicapped children, create more stress for parents. Thus, such children are more likely to be abused than are other children.

The problem of sexual abuse has received much at­tention in newspapers and on

television. Children are warned not to let people, even family members, touch them in ways that make them feel uncomfortable. Chil­dren also are instructed to tell a trusted adult if they are sexually abused. Children should be encouraged to dis­cuss anything that bothers them with a trustworthy adult. However, experts point out that frightening warn­ings about something small children cannot understand can terrify and confuse them.

People all over the world have realized that child abuse is a big problem. One solution to the growing problem of child abuse is preventing family members from becoming so isolated or stressed that abuse oc­curs. Parent support groups and other professional serv­ices can help relieve many of the stresses that lead to abuse. In extreme cases, a juvenile court may place chil­dren in a foster home or other type of child-care facility. The International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect was founded in 1977. It has members in 32 countries and aims to prevent cruelty to children in every nation.

Child labour is the employment of children as wage earners. It became a serious social problem during the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain during the 1700's, and the problem spread to other countries as they be­came industrialized. The problem arose when children, many below the age of 10, were employed in factories and mines. The children were forced to work long hours under dangerous and unhealthy conditions, and their wages were very small.

Social reformers began to condemn child labour practices because of their ruinous effect on the health and welfare of children. The most effective attack on the evils of child labour may have come from Charles Dick­ens' novel Oliver Twist (1837-1839). The book was widely read in Britain and throughout the world, and drew at­tention to the suffering of children.

Gradually, countries passed laws to correct the abuses of child labour. But child labour is still a prob­lem. Millions of children work illegally in industrialized and developing countries under terrible conditions. In developing countries, the children may work as wage earners in factories or mines, or even by themselves as street traders.

In Australia and New Zealand, North America, and most European countries, working children tend to be teenagers who hold part-time jobs. The working condi­tions of such children are carefully regulated by law. However, many children in industrialized countries still work as part of the family workforce. They may be em­ployed on a full-time or part-time basis in small factories or at home.

In many developing countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, millions of boys and girls still hold full­time jobs illegally. In some countries, children under 15 form a large part of the total work force, and there is lit­tle or no control over their working conditions. They are most commonly employed in mines, quarries, factories, and on farms. Some children work with their parents, doing simple but repetitive tasks, contributing to the family income. Other children may work by themselves because their parents are dead, disabled, or not able to get work. For example, although the law in Egypt pro­hibits the employment of children under the age of 12, its leather tanning industry has had a high number of child labourers since the 1800's. In Columbia, children work in agriculture, manufacturing, quarrying, and brickmaking. The gold industry in Peru employs many seasonal child migrant workers. Children are employed in the carpet manufacturing industry in Varanasi, India. In the Philippines, children are employed in the wood and clothing industries.

Although the governments of most developing coun­tries have laws prohibiting the employment of children, they lack the money to enforce these laws. Also, the poverty in most developing countries means that many parents need the additional help of their children for the family to survive.

History of child abuse. Since ancient times, children have worked to help support their families, especially on farms. But child labour created no major social prob­lems until the Industrial Revolution, when the factory system of labour began.

During the 1700's, many businesses in Britain began to hire children. Children could be paid lower wages than adults, and were not so likely as adults to cause la­bour troubles. Factory owners wanted to use their small, nimble fingers for tending machines. Children worked for low pay in dirty, poorly lighted factories, mills, and mines. They often performed jobs that needed adult strength. Many became permanently disabled or de­formed through having to do physical work for which they were not really capable, or having to work in foul atmospheres where poisonous gases or dust affected their lungs. Many children fell asleep over their work and were injured or killed by machinery that was inade­quately fenced or protected.

Child workers were often deprived of the chance to attend school. Uneducated, the only work they were ca­pable of doing was unskilled labour. Thus, they had little chance to better themselves.

First child labour laws. In 1802, the British Parlia­ment passed the first law regulating child labour. The law prohibited the employment of pauper children (chil­dren dependent on charity) under 9 years of age in cot­ton mills. Pauper children under 14 could not work at night, and their workday was limited to 12 hours. In 1819, the law was extended to include all children. No real provision for enforcing these laws was made until 1833, when the Factory Act was passed which also made provisions for factory inspections. Germany was the sec­ond country to pass national child labour laws. It did so in 1839.

The development of the textile industry in America depended heavily on children. In 1832, about 40 per cent of all factory workers in New England, U.S.A., were between the ages of 7 and 16. In 1836, Massachusetts passed the first state child labour law in the United States. The law prohibited the employment of children under 15 in any factory unless the children had attended school for at least three months during the preceding year.

In 1890, an International Labour conference was held in Berlin, Germany, to examine the problem of child workers. The International Association for Labour Legis­lation was established in Switzerland in 1900 with the aim of setting up minimum standards for the protection of child workers.

Modern legislation. Protective legislation against child labour now applies in many nations, including Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In these countries, the employment of children under a minimum age is generally prohibited, as is employment during school hours or for more than a few hours a day on schooldays for children of school age. There is a general provision against children carrying or lifting

anything too heavy for them. There are more detailed provisions to protect children and young people in such industries as mining, quarrying, shipping, and factories. Licences must be granted for children to take part in plays, films, and other forms of entertainment

In India, the Factory Act of 1948 prohibited the em­ployment of children in factories and regulates working conditions. Later child labour legislation prohibited the employment of children under the age of 14 in danger­ous occupations. It also regulated conditions of work in such jobs as transport, workshops, and plantations. Honk Kong prohibits the employment of persons under the age of 15 in any industry. In the Philippines, children under 15 are only allowed to work with their parents or guardians. Those between the ages of 15 and 18 may be employed for a certain number of hours each day, as long as the employment does not interfere with their schooling.

The International Labour Organization (ILO) of the United Nations exists to improve working conditions throughout the world. It has adopted a series of conven­tions and recommendations over the years, which deal specifically with the employment of children and young people. For instance, the Minimum Age Convention provides guidelines on when, where, and under what conditions children may work. By 1988, 36 countries had ratified the convention. In many of these countries, the minimum age for light work is 12 years, and that for haz­ardous work is usually between 16 and 18 years.

But the ILO has shown that there is still much to be done to protect children from being exploited by em­ployers. Until general living conditions are improved in many places, there will still be children who have to work to supplement their own or their family's low in­come.

Childbirth is the process by which a woman gives birth to a baby. A pregnant woman carries a baby within her body inside a hollow, muscular organ called the uterus. After about nine months, the baby passes out of the uterus and through the vagina, or birth canal. Child­birth is painful, but the severeness of the pain varies among women.

The birth process is called labour. It consists of a se­ries of actions that begin when the muscles of the uterus start to tighten and relax in a rhythmic pattern. As labour progresses, these muscle contractions becojpe stronger and occur more frequently, causing the cervix (mouth of the uterus) to open. After the cervix has opened to a diameter of about 10 centimetres, the woman begins to "push" with her abdominal muscles in time with the contractions. This action forces the baby through the cervix and out of the mother's body through the vagina. The amniotic sac, a membrane containing water that envelops the baby, breaks before or during labour. The water flows out through the vagina.

Most babies are born headfirst But in some deliver­ies, called breech births, the feet or buttocks come out first After the baby has passed out of the mother's body, the umbilical cord is cut and clamped, and the infant starts to breathe. The umbilical cord is a tubelike struc­ture that connects the baby to the placenta, an organ at­tached to the wall of the uterus. Food and oxygen from the mother's blood pass through the umbilical cord to the baby during pregnancy. After the baby is born, the muscles of the uterus continue to contract until the pla­centa separates from the uterus and is expelled through the vagina. The discharged placenta is called the after­birth.

The period of labour varies greatly in length among women. It averages 13 to 14 hours for women having their first babies and lasts 7 to 8 hours thereafter.

A woman may have to undergo an operation called a Caesarean section to deliver a baby. The surgeon re­moves the baby and the placenta through an incision made in the abdomen and uterus. Caesarean sections are performed for many reasons, but chiefly because the baby cannot pass through the birth canal. The woman's pelvis may be too small, or the baby may be too large.

Methods of childbirth. In industrialized countries, most women have their babies in hospitals, which have specially equipped labour and delivery rooms. During childbirth, a woman may receive medication to relieve her labour pains. In some cases, a doctor will administer a drug to induce (bring on) labour. Before delivery, the doctor may widen the woman's vaginal opening by mak­ing a small incision called an episiotomy.

In many cases, doctors use an electronic fetal monitor to record the baby's heartbeat during labour. A signal from this machine warns if the baby is in danger. If so, a Caesarean section may be necessary.

During the 1960's and the 1970's, many hospitals de­veloped educational programmes to prepare women for childbirth. A number of these programmes instruct both the mother and the father on pregnancy, childbirth, and infant care. In addition, such programmes as natural childbirth and the Lamaze method became increasingly popular. They teach various relaxation exercises and breathing techniques to help lessen the discomfort of labour, thus reducing the need for painkilling drugs. Such drugs are passed on to the baby through the pla­centa, and so some women choose to avoid them. Some women also prefer not to use the drugs so they can be alert throughout labour and function effectively during the "pushing" state.

The Leboyer method of delivery was introduced in the United States in the mid-1970^rs. This method empha­sizes making birth as gentle as possible for the baby. For example, the Leboyer method calls for a quiet, dimly lit room rather than the standard bustling, brightly lighted delivery room.

Other hospitals developed birthing rooms as an alter­native to the regular labour and delivery rooms. Most birthing rooms resemble a home bedroom. They are de­signed to make the delivery more relaxed and informal, while still having the hospital's facilities at hand if com­plications occur. See also Midwife; Premature birth; Reproduction (pictures: Birth of a baby); Toxaemia of pregnancy.

Children in care are children looked after by the state or by any of several voluntary organizations. Children come into care because they have no parent or guardian to provide for them, because they are handicapped, or because their family life is not normal. For example, their parents may be separated or divorced, or unable to look after them because of illness. Some parents abandon their children. In many countries, the also takes into care children who break the law. De­pending on their age, such children may enter a community home, a detention centre, or an attendance centre.

In England, Wales, and Scotland, local government authorities are responsible for the welfare and education of children in care. In Northern Ireland, the respon­sibility for children in care lies with area boards of the Department of Health and Social Services. Local authorities look after children in children's homes, which the authorities run themselves, or which are run by volun­tary organizations. Such organizations include Dr. Barnardo's, the National Children's Home, and the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC). Some children's homes specialize in looking after children with special needs such as those with physical handicaps. Many other children live with foster parents (parents chosen to look after children to whom they are not related).

In South Africa, the Child Care Act provides for child care services, foster care, adoption, and residential care. Children's courts are responsible for placing children in foster homes. The South African government pays foster care grants and subsidizes children's homes.

In Australia, each state is responsible for the welfare of the child. Apart from adoption services, the states also place children in foster care and residential homes.

In the Republic of Ireland, the state health boards act on behalf of ill-treated or neglected children in cases specifically brought to their attention. The boards have power to remove children from parents who abuse them. The charitable organization Care (the Campaign for the Care of Deprived Children) is active in this area. It was set up in 1970. Care aims to publicize the problems of deprived children in Ireland. It also supplements the work of Ireland's major childcare organization, which is the Irish Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Chil­dren (ISPCC).

History. Laws concerning juvenile detention and care were first passed by the British Parliament in the mid- 180ffs. In the late 1800's, concern increased about the harsh treatment of children. Dr. Thomas Barnardo set up his first home in London in 1870 (see Barnardo, Thomas John). The NSPCC was founded in 1884. Its first presi­dent was the Earl of Shaftesbury.

Since 1908, several acts have been passed in Britain to improve the treatment and welfare of children. Modern legislation requires that, in all disputes involving chil­dren, the interests of the children

Children's home, also called an orphanage, is an in­stitution that cares for homeless children. Some chil­dren may be left alone after both their parents die. Oth­ers may be abandoned by their parents because of poverty, or may be removed from their homes because of neglect or abuse. Some children may be homeless because their parents do not want the responsibility of rearing them.

The number of children's homes in most countries has been declining steadily, largely due to the efforts of child psychologists, social workers, and other child wel­fare specialists. These authorities disapprove of the im­personal care and overcrowded conditions of most in­stitutions. They believe that children should live in a family environment.

Today, children's homes have been largely replaced by places that offer short-term care to homeless chil­dren until they are placed in foster homes. The parents in a foster home volunteer to care for a child in their own home and they receive payment for the cost of the child's care. A permanent adoptive family is sought for each child. If a foster home or adoptive parent is not available, a child may be placed in a group home. In a group home, a professional staff cares for a small num­ber of children. Such organizations as religious groups and government agencies provide funds for group homes.

See also Foster parent.

Children's laws protect children from cruelty, sexual offences, neglect, or exploitation, and assure them of some education. Most countries have laws that protect the interests of children.

The minimum age for full employment varies be­tween countries. In some countries, laws prohibit the employment of children under 13 years of age. Children between the ages of 13 and 15 must not be employed during school hours, or for more than 2 hours a day out­side school hours.

Laws governing the treatment and health of working children have been passed in several countries. For ex­ample, the Factories Act of the United Kingdom requires children to have a medical examination when they join a factory and every year afterward until they become adults.

Most countries require children to attend full time education for a number of years. Under the British Edu­cation act of 1944, children must attend school, or re­ceive adequate private tuition, up to the age of 15. The government raised this age to 16 in 1973.

People can be punished for all types of cruelty to chil­dren, and for selling tobacco and intoxicating liquor to them. Parents and guardians can be punished for neg­lecting their children.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child was adopted on Nov. 20,1989. The various articles of the convention range from the right of children to ex­press their views, right to freedom of thought, the right to protection from abuse, and the right to a good stand­ard of living.